National Defence College

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Information Security Threats to e-government Services in Kenya
(Global Journal of Human-Social Science, 2023) Otieno Godfred Ohndyl; James J Kimuyu; Zedekia Sidha
This study examined information security threats to e-government services commonly known as e-citizen. Grounded on General Systems Theory examined the nature of complex inter-relationships and interdependence of global society, states, non-state actors and individuals and how they relate in a complex internet –enabled communication network. Mixed method cross sectional survey was used. Targeted population of 12000 respondents from 51 Huduma Centres. Purposive sampling at 10% was chosen where 1200 structured questionnaires issued returned 966 responses at 80%. The data was processed and analysed using SPSS. The hypothesis was tested at 5% significance level. The study found that Kenyan citizens were the majority at 50%, Companies at 35%, Foreign Agencies 10% and Foreign Nationals at 5%. The services sought; Government to (G2C) 43%, Government to Business (G2B) 35%, Government to employees (G2E) 20% and Government to Government (G2G) 2%. The study identified 12 categories of information security threats i.e unauthorized access, illegal devices, unauthorized codes, distributed denial of services (ddos) false publications, computer frauds, cyber espionage, terrorism and squatting, phishing, identity thefts, electronic interceptions, fraudulent electronic data, employee aiding and child pornography.
The Nature of Community Armed Groups in Northern Kenya: a framework of Territoriality and Ethnicity
(Africa Amani Journal (AAJ), 2023) Clifford Collins Omondi Okwany; Evelyne Atieno Owino; Zedekiah Opondo Sidha
In this article, we analyze the fluidity of territoriality—state control or influence of space, looking at how community-based armed groups (CBAGs) from the Pokot, Samburu, and Turkana ethnic communities take advantage of semi-territoriality—spaces with limited state security personnel. We analyze the conflict belt—areas in north and west of Samburu County bordering Baringo north and Turkana east, giving an understanding of how the change of norms and development impact the dynamics of conflict and violence in Samburu. The article benefits from our research experiences and networks from the community policing ICT4COP—EU Horizon 20201 and the Collaborative Research Centre (CRC) 228 project on Future Rural Africa.2 Our empirical evidence was gathered from 34 interviews with key informants, such as state representatives and civil society officials, and 11 focus group discussions with communities in Samburu and Turkana. The findings show that the fluidity of state-territoriality has an impact on human security, leading to community mistrust of the security forces. We recommend robust community-oriented policing (COP) as a devolved security strategy, strengthening a public-private partnership (PPP)—a hybrid of the private sectors and government in policing work and civil societies and communities in helping to monitor and evaluate the police. Additionally, mapping illegal arms and CBAGs through clan structures is a community-oriented strategy that helps strengthen territoriality and counter semi-territoriality.
Information Technology, the Complexity of Joint Action, and Child Protection Policy Implementation in Kenya
(Springer Nature, 2023-08) Zedekia Sidha; Nixon Amuomo
The role of information technology in public administration has received substantial attention in recent years. Major discussions revolve around how technology can promote efficiency, accountability, democracy, and participation of traditionally excluded populations such as women, the poor, and persons with disabilities. However, little attention has been paid to understanding the role of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in dealing with the complexity of joint action as a perennial problem of public policy implementation. Today, the challenge of coordinating contributions of various players to the implementation process not only relates to different government departments but also to interactions between the government, private sector, and civil society organisations. The findings here show that child protection policy failure in some African policy contexts might partly be attributable to a lack of coordination among various players. This chapter analyses the attendant Child Protection Information Management System, Kenya, and the orphans and vulnerable children case management process employed as policy instruments to reduce the problem of joint action in Child Policy. It explicitly demonstrates the role of ICTs in promoting policy collaborations among various implementing agencies.
Beyond victimhood: gendered pathways to violent extremism and the imperative of transformative counter-strategies in Kenya’s borderlands
(Taylor & Francis, 2026-04) Zedekia Sidha; Israel Nyadera
This article seeks to examine gendered pathways to violent extremism. Drawing on feminist security studies and constructivist theory, it analyses the evolving relationship between gendered dynamics and violent extremism (VE) recruitment in Garissa County, Kenya. Using data from 120 life-history interviews, UCINET-based social network analysis, key informant interviews, and longitudinal survey data (N = 400), the study empirically traces different gendered pathways into Al-Shabaab networks. The results indicate that economic precarity intersects with shifting masculinities (driven by unattainable provider roles, absent fathers, and substance abuse) and femininities that are constrained (exacerbated by marital pressures, illiteracy, and economic desperation) to form distinctive vulnerabilities. Critically, the findings show how violent extremist actors strategically weaponise gendered fractures by offering alternative forms of belonging, recognition, and identity. The study shows a significant increase in the recruitment of women (approximately 35% of new cases), not only as logistical supporters but also as propagandists, recruiters, and coerced “wives,” with their perceived invisibility often exploited operationally. At the same time, the study identifies a major gap in CVE communication approaches: key local influencers, especially mothers and religious leaders, remain poorly integrated into mainstream CVE channels such as radio and baraza forums.
Street-Level Bureaucrats as Policy Entrepreneurs: The Nexus between Timing of Traffic Enforcement Activities and Road Safety Policy Outcomes
(Wiley Online Library, 2020-12) Zedekia Sidha; Patrick Asingo; Justine Magutu
This article examines the influence of street-level bureaucratic discretion over the timing of implementation on road safety policy outcomes. It is premised on freshly collected data from road users and traffic enforcement officers in Nairobi, Kenya. It employed Street-Level Bureaucratic Theory for purposes of conceptualization. It observed that traffic police divisions, like most street-level bureaucracies, are chronically under-resourced. They do not have sufficient officers and equipment to monitor safety police compliance and conduct traffic control activities among other roles. To cope with these challenges, they make discretionary choices over activities to concentrate on at any given time. Given that the police play an important role in fostering road safety policy compliance, the study concludes that their failure to target safety implementation at the time when the violations are prevalent is linked to the incessant road safety policy failures across the globe.
How and Why Women Legislators Miss Out on Legislative Leadership Roles: Gender Equality Policies and Legislative Influence in Kenya
(Springer Nature, 2023-03) Zedekia Sidha; Taji Shivachi; Justine Mokeira Magutu
Since the Beijing platform for action on women’s rights in 1995, many states and regional bodies have enacted laws to help implement the conference’s recommendations. Most of these laws are in the form of gender quotas. Arguably, 130 out of 156 states currently have one form of gender quota or the other. These quotas commonly exist in three central categories: reserved seats, party quotas and legislative quotas. This chapter dissects these categories to understand how they position women legislators—elected and nominated—for legislative leadership roles. It disassociates sex from gender quotas and compares access to legislative leadership positions between women and men and between elected and nominated local government assemblies in Kenya. We rely on Feminist Institutionalism (FI) lenses and rich empirical data to tease out the interstices between institutions, cultural structures and norms underpinning the exclusion of female legislators from legislative leadership positions. Our empirical analysis makes nuanced comparative inferences to other Eastern African states. Overall, we show that the art of nation-building in Africa, as elsewhere, is incomplete without effectively integrating women in key decision-making political institutions like the legislature.
Afforestation as a Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategy in Isiolo County, Kenya: Challenges and Opportunities
(International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), 2025-10) Abdullahi Hassan Osman; Israel Nyadera; Stephen Mailu
The aim of this study was to examine afforestation as a climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy in Isiolo County, focusing on its evolution, the challenges limiting its implementation, and the opportunities that can be harnessed to improve its effectiveness. The study also sought to demonstrate how afforestation contributes to building resilience in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), where recurrent droughts, land degradation, and dependence on natural resources increase vulnerability to climate change. Over the past few years, afforestation programmes have been launched to curb climate impacts in ASALs. The study was guided by three objectives: to investigate the evolution of afforestation as a climate change mitigation strategy in Kenya; to assess challenges facing its implementation in ASALs; and to establish opportunities for enhancing its effectiveness. Anchored on Ecosystem Restoration Theory, a mixed-method research design was applied with a sample size of 80 participants. Data was collected through questionnaires, analyzed descriptively, and presented in tables. Findings show afforestation programmes have improved in ASALs; however, their main challenge is the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Opportunities lie in proactive governance through climate-sensitive policies and legislation. The study concludes that afforestation has evolved as a key climate change response, but its impact is limited by environmental and institutional barriers. It recommends policies linking afforestation to economic outcomes for local communities and stresses the need for regular maintenance practices such as weeding, thinning, pruning, and fire prevention to strengthen sustainability.
Gender Dynamics in Countering Violent Extremism: Insights from Local Communities in Isiolo County, Kenya
(International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), 2024-10) Zadock Wambua Kavemba; Mumo Nzau; Emmanuel Kondoltiony
Countering violent extremism (CVE) has become a significant concern globally, with various strategies being explored to address the root causes of radicalization. In regions like Isiolo County, Kenya, gender dynamics play a pivotal role in influencing both vulnerability to and engagement in efforts to combat extremism. Gender-sensitive approaches have been increasingly recognized for their potential to enhance the effectiveness of CVE interventions by addressing the social, economic, and political inequalities that contribute to radicalization. This study investigates Gender Dynamics in Countering Violent Extremism: Insights from Local Communities in Isiolo County, Kenya, utilizing a feminist security theory framework. The objective of the study is to explore how gender influences the effectiveness of CVE strategies and to identify the factors that enable women’s active involvement in CVE. A mixed-methods approach, including surveys, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions, was used to gather perspectives from individuals directly or indirectly affected by violent extremist activities, as well as key informants involved in CVE initiatives. The study finds that promoting gender equality, fostering inclusive community dialogue, addressing underlying social issues, empowering women in leadership roles, and engaging men and boys in challenging traditional gender norms are critical to enhancing women’s participation in CVE. These findings underscore the importance of adopting a gender-sensitive approach to CVE, which recognizes and tackles the intersecting social, economic, and political factors driving violent extremism. Key recommendations include implementing governance reforms to promote gender equality, expanding educational and economic opportunities for women, fostering inclusive dialogues, and engaging men and boys in promoting positive masculinity. These insights contribute to broader discussions on gender-responsive approaches to security and peacebuilding, highlighting specific strategies to strengthen women’s roles in preventing and countering violent extremism in Isiolo County.
Evaluating the Role of Rehabilitation Programs in the Post-Release Reintegration of Female Prisoners at Lang'ata Women Prison, Kenya
(International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), 2025-06) Yusuf Kaitopok; Resila Atieno Onyango; Cliff Obwogi
This study examined the role of rehabilitation programs in supporting the post-release reintegration of female prisoners at Lang’ata Women Prison, Kenya. Drawing on rehabilitation theory and restorative justice principles, the research uses a mixed-methods approach, involving surveys of inmates and staff (n = 198) and in-depth interviews with formerly incarcerated women and prison personnel. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis. Findings reveal that vocational training in tailoring, baking, and ICT provides valuable skills for employment. Psychosocial interventions, such as counselling and maternal care, improve emotional resilience, while enhanced healthcare and nutrition support physical wellbeing. However, many women face significant reintegration challenges due to the lack of transitional housing, limited employment linkages, and community stigma. These systemic gaps undermine the sustainability of rehabilitation outcomes and increase the risk of recidivism. The study recommends establishing a structured “Continuum of Care” framework that includes halfway houses, partnerships with employers, micro enterprise support, and community reintegration initiatives. Institutionalizing these components can bridge the gap between prison rehabilitation and successful reintegration, reduce repeat offenses, and strengthen Kenya’s correctional justice system in line with restorative justice goals.
Assessing the Effectiveness of East African Community Interventions in Combating Economic Crimes in Tanzania
(Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS), 2025-08) Peter Yohana Mrio; Stephen Handa; Emmanuel Psongol Kondoltiony
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of the East African Community (EAC) interventions in combating economic crimes in Tanzania, with a focus on the performance of collaborative mechanisms among EAC law enforcement agencies. Guided by collective action theory and rational choice theory, the research employed a mixed-methods design, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Data were gathered from key stakeholders such as law enforcement personnel, policymakers, legal professionals, and civil society representatives using structured interviews and questionnaires. The sampling strategy combined both probability and non-probability techniques to ensure a balanced representation. Ethical standards were upheld through institutional approval and informed consent procedures. Findings indicate that while formal structures for regional cooperation exist, their effectiveness is undermined by bureaucratic red tape, limited technological capacity, and insufficient political will. These obstacles impede efficient intelligence-sharing and coordination across borders, weakening the region's overall response to economic crime. The study recommends enhancing institutional capacity through increased funding, specialized training, and the integration of advanced technologies. Strengthening regional cooperation through improved communication and intelligence-sharing is essential, as is reinforcing political commitment to combat corruption and promote accountability. Public engagement should be heightened through awareness campaigns involving civil society and the private sector. Finally, the study advocates for the creation of a centralized EAC Economic Crimes Unit to lead and coordinate regional anti-crime initiatives.
Stakeholder Participation Mechanisms in Foreign Policy Decision-Making: Lessons from Kenya’s EACRF Deployment
(The Eastern Africa Journal of Policy and Strategy, 2025-12) Wamuyu Ndururi; Caroline Kathure Gatobu; Mumo Nzau
This article examined the role of stakeholder participation mechanisms in foreign policy decision-making, focusing on the deployment of Kenya’s contingent (KENCON) under the East African Community Regional Force in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The general purpose was to investigate how diverse stakeholders influence foreign policy processes within the framework of the Constitution of Kenya 2010. It specifically sought to (i) identify the constitutional frameworks guiding foreign policy decision-making, (ii) analyse the role of key stakeholders in influencing the KENCON deployment decision, (iii) evaluate the effectiveness of public engagement platforms in facilitating stakeholder participation, and (iv) propose strategies to strengthen inclusive foreign policy decision-making. Anchored in public choice theory and constructivism, the study applied a qualitative approach using case study design. Data were collected from 188 respondents who included government officials, military personnel, policy analysts, civil society representatives and members of the public. The data collection instruments used were questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were used. The study identified barriers to effective participation which included institutional capacity constraints, information asymmetries and political culture factors. The findings also indicated that despite the existence of stakeholder mechanisms in theory, in practice they are weak, symbolic and dominated by executive actors. The study proposed a comprehensive stakeholder engagement framework that incorporates multi-tiered consultation processes, enhanced information sharing mechanisms and strengthened institutional capacity for public participation. This framework would address the need for balancing security imperatives with democratic accountability while ensuring meaningful stakeholder engagement in foreign policy formulation.
The Role of Research and Development in the Manufacturing Sector in Fostering Technological Innovation and Economic Security in Ethiopia
(International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), 2025-10) Tegegn D. Toge; Joseph Mutungi; Paul Gachanja
This study investigates the critical nexus between Research and Development (R&D), technological innovation, and economic security within Ethiopia's manufacturing sector. Despite ambitious national plans to become a lower-middle-income country and a regional manufacturing hub, the sector's contribution to GDP remains low, hampered by low productivity, technological stagnation, and weak innovation capabilities. Employing a mixed-methods case study design, this research collected data from 30 senior officials and researchers across five specialized manufacturing R&D institutes and 9 key informant interviews. The findings reveal a significant systemic disconnect: while Ethiopia has established a structured R&D institutional framework, it is severely hampered by chronic underinvestment (only 0.61% of GDP), weak linkages between academia and industry, and a policy implementation gap. Consequently, promising R&D outputs, such as waste valorization technologies and AI-driven quality control prototypes, fail to achieve commercial scale and transformative impact. The study concludes that without strategic interventions to boost funding, foster robust industry, academia and government manufacturing industry R&D institutes collaboration, and create effective commercialization pathways, Ethiopia's manufacturing R&D will continue to fall short of driving the technological innovation necessary for enhanced productivity, competitiveness, and long-term economic security. Recommendations include increasing R&D expenditure to at least 1% of GDP, implementing targeted policy incentives for private-sector involvement, and establishing formalized triple-helix partnerships to bridge the existing innovation chasm.
The Effectiveness of IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) on Environmental Security in the Greater Horn of Africa
(International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR), 2024) Swaleh Mwachidagaya; Rotich Gladys Chepkirui
A comprehensive analysis of Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) Climate Prediction and Applications Center (ICPAC) initiatives in the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) is necessitated by the existing climatic challenges in the region. The program was developed with an aim at enhancing environmental security through climate prediction. This review delves into the different initiatives within ICPAC and their impact in addressing environmental threats within the IGAD region. A region that is known for its vulnerability to climate change and variability which has posed significant threat to the environment, livelihoods and sustainable development. This analysis assesses the impact of ICPAC's work on environmental security by thoroughly examining the organization's efforts to increase the accuracy of climate predictions, fortify early warning systems, and encourage adaptive methods. This study emphasizes the significance of scientific innovation and regional cooperation in solving climate-related concerns in the Greater Horn of Africa by combining existing research, reports, and case studies. The study in its findings highlights the need for an elaborate monitoring and evaluation framework that will advise policy and shape up future programs. There has also been an indication of inadequate awareness programs for communities to be able to fully explore the benefits that ICPAC is aimed at delivering.
Prosecutorial Efficiency in Terrorism Cases in Kenya: Legal and Institutional Challenges
(International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), 2025-07) Robert Oyiembo; Dennis Ndambo; Gladys Rotich
This study investigates the factors influencing prosecutorial efficiency in handling terrorism cases in Kenya, focusing on the causes of trial delays and the impact of prosecutorial discretion on the constitutional right to a speedy trial. The addressed problem is the delays in terrorism-related trials, facilities like the legal framework represented by the Prevention of Terrorism Act (2012) are already in place. The study employs mixed-methods design, pairing qualitative interviews with 24 prosecutors, 16 judges as well as 40 defense attorneys, with quantitative statistics gathered via surveys, in order to examine the correlation between prosecutorial decisions and trial delay. The findings reveal that resource constraints, lack of specialized training, poor coordination between agencies, and political interference are the primary factors contributing to the inefficiency of terrorism prosecutions. The backlog of cases, lack of funds and inadequate dedicated terrorism courts especially worsen delay in trials. As a solution, the study proposes enhancing funding given to the Office of the Director of Public Prosecution (ODPP), offering professionalized education to legal practitioners, better inter-agency collaboration and more specially set-up terrorism courts to face the peculiar circumstances of terrorism cases. These recommendations would enable the criminal justice system in Kenya to realize trials that are timely, fulfill the right to a speedy trial and enhance the general effectiveness of terrorism-related crimes.
Linking Infrastructure to Livelihoods: Assessing the Influence of Infrastructure Development on Socio-Economic Security in Taita Taveta County, Kenya
(Journal International of Social Science & Humanities, 2025-07) Omondi, Truphosa Apondi; Raphael Z. Mwatela; Peterlinus O. Odote
This study investigated the influence of mega infrastructural development projects on socio-economic security in Taita Taveta County, Kenya, with a focus on road, rail, and housing sectors. Employing a descriptive cross sectional design, the research combined quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data from 414 respondents across Voi, Taveta, Mwatate, and Wundanyi sub-counties. The findings reveal that road and housing infrastructure have had a positive and statistically significant impact on socio-economic security by enhancing access to essential services, creating employment opportunities, and improving overall household welfare. In contrast, the Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) project exhibited limited socio-economic benefits due to weak integration with local economic systems and minimal community engagement during planning and implementation. The study concludes that while infrastructure is a key enabler of development, its socio economic impact depends on equitable distribution, functionality, and local relevance. It recommends that future projects be guided by inclusive planning, targeted outreach to underserved areas, and alignment with local livelihoods to ensure sustainable and inclusive socio-economic gains.
Health Security at Risk: Assessing Infrastructure and Operational Gaps in Refugee Immunizations Services in Dadaab
(The HORN Bulletin, 2025-08) Michelle A. Sagala; Michael Sitawa; Joyce Jebet
Vaccination is vital to public health security, especially in refugee settings where health systems are often weak. This study examined health system barriers influencing vaccination uptake among caregivers of children aged 0–14 years in the Dadaab refugee complex, Kenya. A mixed-methods design was used, combining data from 380 survey respondents and qualitative inputs from key informant interviews and a focus group discussion. Findings revealed wide disparities in vaccine coverage across camps, Dagahaley (99.1%), Hagadera (65.0%), and Ifo (22.0%), attributed to inconsistent healthcare delivery, workforce shortages, and access barriers. Multivariate analysis showed that camp location and incomplete immunization histories significantly predicted low uptake. Qualitative data highlighted additional barriers, including language gaps, poor coordination, and mistrust. Despite vaccine availability, systemic inequities persist. Strengthening routine services, improving access, and fostering community engagement are essential for improving vaccine uptake and enhancing health security in refugee settings.
Assessing the Impact of Government Security Policies on the Frequency and Severity of Al-Shabaab Attacks in Mandera County, Kenya
(International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), 2025) Mohamed Sirat Yussuf; Peterlinus Ouma Odote; James Kimuyu
This study evaluates the impact of government security policies and programs on the frequency and severity of Al-Shabaab attacks in Mandera County, Kenya, from 2014 to 2024. Researchers collected quantitative and qualitative data by carrying out structured questionnaires among 250 respondents and interviews with key informants. According to the results, only 21.6% of people are aware of counterterrorism policies put in place by the government. Most participants thought that attacks from Al-Shabaab were very severe (65%), but part of them expressed uncertainty about the effectiveness of those actions (24.8%) and part of them felt the measures were not enough (46.4%). Results from regression analysis showed that a bigger military presence (β = 0.358) and stronger border patrols (β = 0.283) strongly reduced the number of terrorist activities, but surveillance technologies influenced them to a moderate degree only (β = 0.276). Research suggests that government support and community-based activities had only a small impact which might result from poor decisions about using resources and making policies. Improving security outcomes was found to rely on stronger collaboration and the exchange of information between the police and the community. Based on the findings, sustaining effective counterterrorism work in Mandera County requires having military, community and inter-agency strengths, plus programs to educate the public.
Strategic Determinants of Military Effectiveness in Fragile States: The Case of Somalia
(International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), 2025-10) Mohamed Ali Barise; Mugah Michael Sitawa; Charles Imbiakha
The military efficacy in fragile nations is influenced by a confluence of strategic, institutional, and contextual factors that affect the capacity of armed forces to maintain stability and fulfil national security goals. Somalia's prolonged war, fragile governmental frameworks, and foreign involvement have posed significant obstacles to the establishment of a competent military. This article analyses how elements like as leadership, resource mobilisation, training and professionalism, institutional coherence, and the influence of foreign relationships affect the performance of Somali National Army. It underscores the influence of political instability, clan dynamics, and tenuous governance on military operations and strategic planning. The article examines how Somalia's dependence on foreign entities, notably the African Union Transition Mission in Somalia and international donors, has influenced its military capabilities and strategic goals. Research reveals that while external funding has improved capabilities in logistics, training, and equipment supply, excessive reliance on foreign aid jeopardises long-term sustainability and independence. The paper asserts that enhancing Somalia's military efficacy requires a comprehensive approach that incorporates political stability, institutional changes, and capacity-building programs suited to the nation's precarious circumstances.
Beneficial Ownership Transparency and Economic Security in Kenya : Bridging Regulatory Gaps to Counter Financial Crimes
(The Eastern Africa Journal of Policy and Strategy, 2025-12) Mohamed Abdul M'maka; John Kisilu; Charles Okongo Imbiakha
Transparency in beneficial ownership (BO) information has significant implications for economic security. In Kenya, BO opacity facilitates financial crimes such as corruption, tax evasion, illicit financial flows, and terrorism financing, undermining both national and economic stability. While previous studies have explored illicit financial flows in specific sectors, the broader link between BO transparency and economic security remains underexplored. With BO transparency as the independent variable and economic security as the dependent variable, this study, grounded in principal-agent and institutional theories, examines Kenya’s BO disclosure systems, the economic impacts of BO transparency, and the challenges to effective implementation. A qualitative, phenomenological research design was adopted, using purposive sampling to gather insights from practitioners. Data were collected through interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, and document analysis involving 38 participants. The study reveals that enforcement gaps in BO laws expose Kenya to financial crimes and weaken economic resilience. Key sectors with underdeveloped BO disclosure include the real estate, extractives, and energy. Lack of accurate and current BO registers, limited inter-agency collaboration, and weak enforcement mechanisms exacerbate illicit financial flows. Yet enhanced BO transparency presents economic benefits such as improved tax compliance, greater investor confidence, and reduced corruption. Challenges include high compliance costs and resistance from private sector actors. The study recommends strengthening legal frameworks, improving enforcement, leveraging technology, and promoting inter-agency cooperation. Ultimately, BO transparency is vital to Kenya’s economic security, and addressing current gaps is essential to combating financial crimes and promoting sustainable economic growth.
Religious Sectarian Extremism in Kenya: An Assessment of Kilifi County
(The Eastern Africa Journal of Policy and Strategy, 2025) Michael Mkoji; Mumo Nzau; Rosalind Nyawira Macharia
Kenya’s battle against violent extremism, primarily focused on Islamist terrorism since the 1998 Nairobi bombing, has seen significant counterterrorism progress over the past two decades. However, extremism remains a pervasive social and security issue, necessitating systematic, research-based policy action. This became starkly evident a er the 2023 Shakahola cult tragedy, where over 400 lives were lost. This study examines religious sectarian extremism in Kenya, with a focus on Kili County from 2010 to 2024, a region marked by heightened extremism, including terrorism, mob killings of the elderly, and the Shakahola tragedy. It evaluates the impact of regulatory frameworks on the relationship between religious sectarian extremism and community security and analyzes strategies to mitigate the threats posed by religious sectarian extremism. The study applies the theory of violent extremist religious sects (VERSs) to contextualize the issue. A descriptive research design was used, collecting data from 384 respondents through structured questionnaires for quantitative analysis (using means and standard deviations) and semi-structured interviews with sixteen key informants for thematic qualitative analysis. Findings reveal that religious sectarian extremism in Kili County and Kenya manifests through religious divisions, conflicts driven by differing theological worldviews among leaders, destruction of worship sites, and discrimination based on religious differences. It also appears as emerging cults and extreme acts like mass suicides, killings, verbal and physical attacks, and hatred. To address this, the study recommends a government-led religious literacy campaign and a robust legal framework to regulate religious institutions.

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